Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be reproducibly induced in Drosophila. This is usually accomplished by subjecting flies in a small tube to rapid acceleration and deceleration or to rapid shaking; mechanical force is delivered to the flies as they contact the tube wall and rebound. Parameters such as speed, duration, and degree of deflection can be regulated to recapitulate different levels of brain injury. A low-volume protocol that restricts injury to the head has also been developed. Similar to humans with TBI, flies subjected to these treatments exhibit temporary incapacitation and ataxia. Dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract is a common occurrence in TBI; increased permeability of the intestinal epithelial barrier is observed in a TBI fly model. Longer-term pathologies recapitulate those observed in chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), including activation of inflammatory and autophagy responses, neuronal defects that impair sleep-related behaviors, increased tau phosphorylation, and neurodegeneration.
[updated Sep. 2018 by FlyBase; FBrf0222196]
A concussion is a mild type of TBI. More severe TBI can cause a wide range of changes affecting thinking, sensation, language, or emotions. TBI can be associated with post-traumatic stress disorder. People with severe injuries usually need rehabilitation. (https://medlineplus.gov/traumaticbraininjury.html).
Repeated head impacts have been suggested to be associated with the development of the neurodegenerative disorder, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is characterized by the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau within the brain, with accompanying cognitive and behavioral deficits (McAteer et al., 2017; pubmed:30202573)
Traumatic brain injury is brain dysfunction caused by an outside force, usually a violent blow to the head. Mild traumatic brain injury may affect brain cells temporarily. More-serious traumatic brain injury can result in bruising, torn tissues, bleeding and other physical damage to the brain. These injuries can result in long-term complications or death. Some signs or symptoms may appear immediately after the traumatic event, while others may appear days or weeks later. [Mayo Clinic, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/traumatic-brain-injury/symptoms-causes/syc-20378557; 2018.09.13]
