Abstract
Neonicotinoids have become widely used in modern global agricultural production, resulting in their increasing presence in ecosystems and environmental media. However, there is still limited available information about the potential environmental and health impacts of neonicotinoids. In this study, fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) were exposed to four commonly used neonicotinoids imidacloprid (IMI), thiamethoxam (TMX), clothianidin (CLO), and dinotefuran (DIN) to elucidate the adverse effects of neonicotinoids on non-target organisms. In-vivo studies have shown that neonicotinoids exposure led to shortened lifespan, developmental inhibition, and impaired locomotor function in fruit flies. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that neonicotinoids exposure altered the expression of genes related to metabolism, apoptosis, mitochondrial function, and oxidative phosphorylation. Targeted enzyme activity analysis, morphological and functional changes further confirmed the toxic effects induced by neonicotinoids exposure. In-vitro studies showed that the level of reactive oxygen species, the main marker of oxidative stress, increased significantly by 15.91%-83.62% after neonicotinoids exposure. The results of transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometry confirmed that neonicotinoids exposure affected mitochondrial integrity, caused mitochondrial dysfunction, as well as triggered apoptosis. Collectively, this study reveals that neonicotinoids IMI, TMX, CLO, and DIN exposure could affect the development and health of fruit flies, providing valuable insights for the ecological risk assessment and rational use of neonicotinoids.
